Shipping the Way We Teach English Successfully Practices

FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES MASTER'S DEGREE IN METHODOLOGY English Teaching Methodology – PMI 730 Reaction Paper PARTICIPANT: EDILTRUDIS GOMEZ Q. 4-724-19 FACILITATOR: AUGUSTO GUEVARA M. A David, Chiriqui 2012 My Reaction to the videos My Reaction about shipping the way we teach English successfully practices around the world video. I think that is a very good instructional video design for EFL education which basically has two main goals: 1- building pedagogical foundations and 2- improving classroom practice. I feel that this video is promoting a manual contains 14 modules. It seems that it is divided in four categories.Category A – approaching to language teaching foundations. It is made of the following modules1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Next category B – Focus in language teaching extension which is made of the following modules 6,7,8,9, and 10. Then category C – focus on the learner and category. It is made of the following module11 and 12. Finally category D â⠂¬â€œ focus on teacher professional development. It is made of the following modules13 and 14. In my humble opinion, it is good that all of the modules have videos plus supporting material and previewing activities which can help teacher to guide students.I agree that if we observe other teachers classes in both primary and secondary level, it can give us not only a variety of teaching stiles but also cultures reflected in these examples will provide a helpful aid for both teacher and student. In addition, I believe that there are several factors affecting the results of teaching such as personal reasons, motivations to use this material, fix practice and curriculum, degree flexibility, and creativity, moreover the willing to experiment and try with different ideas and techniques.However, I agree that the fact of taking in consideration the new ideas that it offers to everyone is essential to improve the way we teach. I concur that before applying these examples we have to do it bas ed on some aspects such as ours students? language, level, curriculum and institutional setting teaching style and culture to shape the way of teaching. The second video is about the module I – contextualizing language by organizing the language curriculum to the topics we are dealing with.Consequently, Language is constructed to purpose situations and social needs, a better learning outcome approach instructions integrated skills and pair work. Finally, Think as flexible as possible, Look for the examples of different activities for instance storytelling, dramatization, singing, student presentation projects themes or topics and look for the context and language. In conclusion, I do not have any disagreement with these videos since I do not have any experience in teaching. On the other hand I found them very useful for teaching both videos were excellent and encourage me to use them as soon as I have the possibility

Ruskin Bond

Religious Strain in the story Angry River By Abha Sirohi Research Scholar, A. K. P. G. College, Hapur (Ghaziabad) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Ruskin Bond attempts to analyze human psychology in his short stories; He deals with the elemental and impulsive life of man. He tells the stories objectively and beyond all these things his stories shows goodness of man’s heart and his faith in the Supreme power.He has innate power to produce the influence of one’s emotions, sounds and sights that thrills the senses of other man; it is due to his profound faith in God. As a writer he has put goodness of man and dignity of human self ab ove all considerations this is the reason sometimes our heart is filled with pleasure and a sense of spiritual satisfaction. Ruskin Bond is a writer of children and when we talk about children a sense of innocence creeps over our mind.The bent of mind of the author takes it in a religious way; he wants to show us innocence of nature, the basic decencies of God. God creates and nourishes us with innocence without any partiality, in return He needs only our dedication, but most of the times we ignore this fact due to our business, our careless attitude:- â€Å"in worrying about own distress, they had forgotten about the island, in the middle of the river. The river was very angry now, rampaging down from the hills and thundering across the plains†¦ 165 Ruskin Bonds children stories are very famous in all over world. Some of his popular stories are Blue Umbrella, Untouchable, Panther’s Moon, Time Stops at Shamli and Angry River. The story Angry River portrays the work of n ature. How nature affects our lives? What He (God, the Supreme power) wants from us? How should we treat and preserve the nature. The story is a pathetic description of a family of remote area, where no one can imagine about survival.The Angry River is the story of a girl Sita who lives with her grandparents on a lonely island in the middle of a river. The story illustrates the life in the lap of nature, which is a symbol of simplicity and naturality. Bond has narrated the opening lines of the story in a very beautiful way:- â€Å"In the middle of the river, the river that began in the mountains of the Himalayas and ended in the bay Bengal there was a small

Business Case Study

A report on investigation into Business Case Date: May 02, 2013 Acquainted with your Business situation. I see a few problems within your business. One of the problems is changes in economic environment, which lead to conflict between stakeholders. The other problem is change of business structure. A success factor for any business is to analyse and understand the external environment in which it operates. Understanding of different types of stakeholders within business is essential too. To analyse business situation various method can be used. To analyse your current business situation I have used SWAT analyse which will give you opportunity better understand external environment and how it can impact your business. And will help you better understand conflict between stakeholders. The most basic SWOT analyse will examine how threats and opportunities can be dealt with while allowing the organisation to utilise its strengths and weaknesses to meet its key success factors [objectives]. A basic SWOT analysis should include an assessment of where the company is at current time and where it wishes to be at some point in the future . The organisation also needs to decide how far away that future is-it will vary from a few month to many years depending on the organisation, the nature of the business and its current situation (B 120, Book 1). SWOT analysis for the The Lodge Bistro Chain Strengths New IT system Initiative management stuff Possibility to adjust to changes Name and business recognition| Weaknesses Informal structure High stuff turnover Inconsistency in standards | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Opportunities New consumers base Reinstate some formal structure and rules| Threats Complete loss of concept Lose of standards Competition External economic environment| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | As you can see from analyse above that the strengths will be recognition of your business and possibility of the business to adjust to new economic environment as you have initiative management team as it is described in Business Case: As an example of these issues, the young manager of one of the cafes in a central urban location began to offer a range of less expensive snacks to cater for diners on low incomes and reduced packaging to respond to the environmentally friendly principles of many customers. Another, in an area close to an office complex, offered a range of healthy eating options. It clearly shows that you have opportunities to attract new consumer’s base. Reinstate some formal structure and rules will give you better opportunity to control business Weaknesses arise from high stuff turnover, as you spend time, recourses for educating stuff. I think it would be beneficial to investigate why they leaving and looking for benefits packages you can purpose to your stuff And main threats arise from losing standards, huge competition and economic environment. For future I would purpose you to use methods like SWAT, STEEP and analyse of stakeholders before making any changes. Would be beneficial to make SWAT analyse on the way business was in 80’s and use it as comparison to current situation. It will give you opportunity to reinforce some formal structure more successfully. References The Open University (2006) B120 An Induction to business studies, Book 1, What is a business? ’, Milton Keynes, The Open University, page 95.

Human Communication And Modern Technology Essay

Human Communication And Modern Technology - Essay Example Turkle says mobile phones, the Internet and the virtual world have caused people to live their lives in a paradox. I have to partially agree with the author’s position. First I will present a summary of her thesis and then evaluate her ideas. â€Å"Always On† of Sherry Turkle’s book Alone Together is presented in five different parts. In the opening paragraphs, the author likens MIT researchers she met in 1996 to cyborgs as they were constantly walking around with their electronic devices. She describes how these young people felt more comfortable around others thanks to the gadgets that were on them. Later in the section, Turkle explains how the generation of today has become ‘cyborg-like’ with their smartphones and technological devices, becoming what used to be considered alien in 1996. In â€Å"The New State of the Self: Tethered and Marked Absent†, Turkle (143) explains that people of today cannot be separated from their devices. Everyone is tethered or attached to their lives and activities even if far away from home. Thanks to connectivity through mobile phones and e-mails, people feel at a loss if they are not able to check the Internet or receive text messages. Another point Turkle presents in this section is that people who are busy on their devices are truly not in the space they are occupying because their minds are on the conversation on their mobile phone, the e-mails, their avatars, etc. The next section â€Å"The New State of the Self: From Life to The Life Mix† discusses how some people live their real life while simultaneously discovering and living another life on the Internet. Life mix, according to one of Turkle’s subjects, is the combined online and offline life of an individual. (Turkle, 148) The author shares how people who develop or create a virtual life do so to escape from the disappointments they have in their real-life.

Customer Engagement in Social Media & Netflix Assignment

Customer Engagement in Social Media & Netflix - Assignment Example Today people prefer other people’s experience and their opinions about a particular product or service rather than advertising and promotions of the brands. For this reason internet is playing a vital role in encouraging people to share their ideas, experiences, opinions to influence others. The potential consumers seek for these types of information which is available and open to everyone (Evans and McKee, 2010). One of the benefits of taking this course is that the information is presented two-fold. Both the marketing and consumer perspectives are represented in an effort to provide you with a holistic view of Social media Marketing. What is your perspective on the Netflix/Qwikster rebranding endeavor? Taking the newly adopted Netflix business model into consideration, how would you have handled the negative customer outpourings on the Social Web if you were in the shoes of Netflix CEO Reed Hastings? FYI, implementing the previous price model is not an option in this scenario, what are other alternatives Netflix could have explored that would prove beneficial to both customers and stakeholders? The Company decided to change the name of its DVD mail service to Qwikster while rebranding, however being wise in technology and innovative, the Company did not go through Social Media, i.e. Twitter where a guy named Jason Castillo already existed with Qwikster (Hill, 2011). To make Netflix beneficial for customers as well as stakeholders and to handle the negative reviews there should have been a better communication process. The Company increasing the prices and doubling it followed by a bad communication process would certainly put a loyal customer to rethink about the relationship with the Company. Priority to customers is the main element and while driving prices up, there could have been a better communication with the customers through their blogs and through other social media. They could have communicated with the

Mini-Theme 4 - Writing with Semantic Argument or Statistics Essay

Mini-Theme 4 - Writing with Semantic Argument or Statistics - Essay Example can damage the cells in the bronchial passages which protect the body against inhaled microorganisms and decrease the ability of the immune cells in the lungs to fight off fungi, bacteria and tumor cells† (Bodies of Evidence, 1999). This affect on immunity extends to the rest of the body as well, reducing its ability to fight illness in a variety of ways such as killing the ‘killer cells’ and T-cells, each necessary in combating illnesses such as AIDS and cancer. In addition, the regular use of marijuana can have many of the same effects as smoking cigarettes, such as increased risk of bronchitis and lung cancer. Regular use has also been found to exacerbate many of the problems experienced by those with mental health conditions. In the short term, marijuana use impairs judgment, perception, thinking, memory and learning. Although the statistical information supported here is rather old, dating back to 1999, it is deemed to have at least a degree of reliability in that it is written and presented by medical professionals who obviously have had some experience in treating the illnesses that are commonly associated with cigarette smoking and other drug use. However, the information is also presented by a group of individuals who are working against having marijuana legalized for any purpose, which throws a tremendous bias upon the facts given and the severity presented. Bodies of Evidence. â€Å"Health Concerns: What are the medical dangers of marijuana use?† Medical Marijuana: Cure or Catastrophe? 1999. 23 August 2007 This interview is designed to help facilitate the researcher with a better idea of what it is like to live with lupus by discussing the experience with a current patient. In particular, the question of the research is to determine whether there is sufficient funding and research for adequate treatment of the disease. By understanding the lived experience, it will be

PRESENTATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

PRESENTATION - Essay Example 7 9.What are you doing to ensure the validity of your research? 7 10.What do they anticipate will be gained through your research? 8 References 9 1. Why have you chosen to base your research on this company/facility/organisation/etc? The major objective of the proposed research is to highlight the consequences of staff training programmes in an organisation. The study will focus on staff training programmes that are implemented by McDonald’s in its global business operations. An effective staff training program can be beneficial for McDonald’s in order to avoid the increasing risks and threats that can arise in various phases within the marketplace. Moreover, it can also be considered as one of the major strategic tools for the organisation in order to achieve competitive advantage in global marketplace (Pranicevic & et. al., 2011). ). From the perspective of McDonald’s, the food chain retail organisation significantly implements effective training and learning p rograms for the employees in various regions of socially, culturally as well as linguistically diversified markets. Therefore, the organisation can be recognised as one of the major fast-food chain retailers across the various regions of the world. 2. ... ll as with the increasing number of competitors in the hospitality and food chain industry, employee training and development programs have become an essential step for the modern organisations in order to maintain their sustainability. In the present day context, organisations frequently employ training programs for the employees in order to educate them regarding effective steps that can be followed by them while dealing with the consumers. Therefore, an assessment of the core concepts that are utilised by a globally leading company, McDonald’s in this context can facilitate to recognise the value of staff training in the organisational context in both short and long run (Pranicevic & et. al., 2011). 3. What are your main literature sources and how have you located and accessed these? In the context of this proposed research, the study would be conducted through assessing various numbers of journals and books that are written by different authors. Moreover, in order to incre ase the effectiveness and suitability of this research, the proposed study would be evaluated through collecting information from primary sources including company annual reports, by conducting interviews and through questionnaire survey with the consumers and employees of McDonald’s. 4. What is the overall aim of your proposal and why? Identifying and highlighting the major effects of staff training in McDonald’s in order to develop the experiences of the global customers of the company’s fast-food retail chain segment is the major objective of this research. Moreover, recognizing various types of innovative and exceptional business strategies that are executed by McDonald’s in its effective staff training initiatives is also a major aim of the proposed research. The recognised aims of

International Business news analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

International Business news analysis - Essay Example e art† mathematical models currently used by economists which presupposed that household and ideal firm optimize their behavior with perfect rationality. In the end they revert back to Ricardian and Smith’s principle as a more plausible law to govern the market and international trade. Adam Smith originally meant that the mechanism of the invisible hand is a result of the market settling the distribution of goods and the prices between what the producers want to produce and what the consumers chooses freely what to consume within a given economy and across economies. As a result, producers will have to create goods that are cheaper to produce undermining competition and gain market share. On a bigger picture, Adam Smith’s invisible hand is comparable to David Ricardo’s idea of Comparative Advantage which is the guiding principle behind globalization of free trading across economies. Ricardo posited that countries will be better off if certain goods and services will be exported by countries that can produce them most efficiently. This is the main principle of outsourcing where a poor country will naturally have a cheap labor serving as its comparative advantage and would be willing to work for wages lower than those their rich counterpart countries which may have been more expensive if done in other countries. As a result, industry will naturally move to these countries as they make more profits by discounting on the labor cost as afforded by the poor country. This is the invisible hand at work in international trade whereby the invisible hand will â€Å"guide† and regulate international trade in the most beneficial manner by directing goods to be produced by more efficient countries so that everybody can benefit from it at a lower price and higher quality. The article however proposed a scenario what if invisible hand and its mechanism of comparative will no longer work because some economists thought of some brilliant mathematical models that

Personal Development And Ethics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Personal Development And Ethics - Assignment Example The second part will consist of a reflective evaluation that will entail a detailed self assessment and analysis as a team member in the context of personal development. a. The main elements of a business are the various activities related to that business and the products offered. The products of my business will include baked cakes, cookies, biscuits and sandwiches. Business activities/services will include customisation, packaging, delivery and shipping of the products. Marketing will be done through news media and social networking. Knowledge: Managerial and financial knowledge is critical. The management must be headed by a competent team of professionals proficient in knowledge management. Identification of business liabilities and assets is essential for developing a sound financial knowledge of the business itself. Since large amounts of investment are to be made, money should be burrowed from a reputed bank. Key financial information like the annual report, balance sheet, etc. regarding the bank should be analysed by the management to evaluate the institution as a financier. Knowledge of assets and liabilities should be clear. For example, the loans secured will be liabilities while the food processing plant and the office building will be assets. Moreover, technological knowledge is also important. The management must have a sound understanding of the food processing machinery like the biscuit making and dough mixing machines, sugar grinding machines, sandwiching machines, etc. Food products machinery, eq uipped with computerised control systems, coupled with highly flexible, automated equipment lines, will increase the overall efficiency of the business (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1994). Knowledge of the market is also very important. Through surveys and research, the company must identify its potential customers and also sort out the resourceful suppliers. Skills: Management skills like emotional intelligence,

Assignment 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

2 - Assignment Example 7. The researchers excluded persons from the study who had a history of psychiatric illness. Provide a rationale for excluding these persons. Basically, the experiment was aimed at finding the best treatment for depression. Therefore, having an earlier treatment for psychiatry may affect the results of the experiment. 2. What statistics were used to describe the demographic variable Estimated Yearly Family Income in this study? Were these appropriate? Employment and the socioeconomic status were used for measuring the yearly family income in this study. However, these were not the appropriate measures. Non parametric statistical analysis techniques are the best fit for education. Parametric tests are done for data whose variances are homogeneous. However, this is not the case for education and therefore, non-parametric tests are best for education. 9. Are there significant differences between the intervention and the control groups for any of the variables in Table I? Provide a rationale for your answer. From the table, there are no significant differences between the intervention and the control groups. This is because there are no significant differences in the percentages of the control groups and the intervention group. 6. Explain why the number of total subjects’ data in Table 2 is for 859 subjects when the total sample for the study was 869 subjects. The people who had a history of cardiac attacks earlier were excluded from the experiment. This study and its results cannot be generalized for the United States. This is because the sample was not representative. The sample was only selected in the rural areas and the sample size was not sufficient, therefore does not reflect the condition in the United States. 1. The following list represents the number of nursing students enrolled in a particular nursing program between the years of 2001 and 2007, respectively: 563, 593, 606, 520, 563, 610, and 577. Determine the mean,

An Evaluation of the Performance of the United Nations Essay Example for Free

An Evaluation of the Performance of the United Nations Essay Abstract   The United Nations is the most dominant international governmental organization in the world. Having been formed with the main objective of preventing war immediately after World War II, so far it appears to have had little success in doing so. Yet there are many problems that are global in nature and thus depend on the United Nations to address them. This has prompted scrutiny into the activities and affairs of the United Nations with the aim of assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the organization. This study takes a critical look into the structures and responsibilities of the political and security organs of the United Nations with the aim of identifying weaknesses and making proposals on how improve on the performance of the organization.   Chapter I Introduction   Introductory paragraphs The challenge of insecurity in international relations remains one of the biggest threats facing the world today. Despite numerous spirited efforts by countries throughout the world to secure the international system from the ever lurking dangers of international wars, the principle of collective security remains as elusive as ever. Since the formation of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, the international system has evidently been characterized by numerous security challenges that have particularly been defined by events during the Cold War, after the Cold War and after the September 11 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States. With the foundation of the United Nations having been solidly based on the principles of collective security, there are increasing concerns as to whether the United Nations is living up to its billing. Past events have clearly demonstrated that the United Nations lacks adequate capacity and authority to enforce the principle of collective security. According to Goldstein (2003), â€Å"The UN Charter establishes a mechanism for collective security – the banding together of the world’s states to stop an aggressor (p. 267). Chapter 7 of the Charter explicitly authorizes the Security Council to use military force against aggression if the use of non-violent means as captured in chapter 6 fail. According to the UN Charter, the United Nations may intervene domestically in a state that commits acts of aggression or poses threats to security. However, this principle is usually enforced selectively. Analysis by Roberts Kingsbury (1994) showed that because great nations possess veto powers, the UN cannot aggressively stop aggression by (or supported by) a great power. Therefore, Chapter seven was used once during the Cold War – in the Korean War when the Soviet delegation unwisely boycotted the Security Council proceedings (p. 61). â€Å"The U.S. flew the U.N. flag in reversing the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950 and the invasion of Iraq in 1990, and both violations were a violation of the international law under the UN charter† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 63). Goldstein (2003) notes that it was under Chapter 7 of the Charter that the UN authorized the use of force to reverse Iraq aggression against Kuwait in 1990 (p.269). To the surprise of many, â€Å"the United Nations never intervened militarily in similar illegal Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Israel invasion of Lebanon in 1982† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 68). These were clear indications that the United Nations is limited by the demands of power politics in the international system. Kochler (2002) emphasizes that the international system is fundamentally anarchical, with the great powers still dominating the international system and the United Nations itself† (p. 6) Purpose of the study Just as the League of Nations grew out of the World War I, the United Nations grew out of the World War II. Like the League of Nations, The United Nations did not fundamentally challenge national sovereignty, it did not alter the existing distribution of power among nation-states, and it institutionalized the dominant position of the great powers – specifically the victorious powers in the World War II. The United Nations did not gain the monopoly on the legitimate use of force, which would be necessary to become a world government and to impose order through superior force and authority. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the fundamental abilities of the United Nations in pursuing and achieving the principle of collective security in the international system. Research Question The ever increasing threats to the state of security in the world have prompted a close scrutiny on the United Nation’s core function of collective security. As a contemporary international governmental organization (IGO), the United Nations certainly does not constitute a world government with absolute power and authority to impose peace on the world. Yet, this does not mean the United Nations is powerless or insignificant. While the United Nations faces numerous hurdles in enforcing the international law due to the sovereignty statues of states and nation-states, the organization can still influence the behavior of states and provide forums for communication and interaction that would be considered more orderly than implied by the concept of anarchy. Therefore the research question involves a critical look into the performance of the United Nations relative to its main function of upholding the principle of collective security in the international system. Hypothesis The core empirical research hypothesis of this study states that the United Nations has not succeeded in upholding the principle of collective security in the international system. Significance of the study The United Nations Charter is based on unifying principles that serve as the driving force for the organization’s initiatives. One of the key principles of the United Nations Charter is the recognition of the sovereign equality of all member states. As such, all member states are considered to be equally sovereign over their respective territories. Each member state has one vote in the General assembly, yet they are not equal in wealth and power. Moreover, only five major powers have permanent seats on the Security Council. Critics and admirers alike point out that the United Nations institutionalizes international inequality due to the fact that the Charter is loaded with idealistic principles that bear little resemblance to reality. Therefore the study is significant because it will highlight on the many challenges that the United Nations faces in its efforts to uphold the principle of collective security and make appropriate recommendations for addressing those particular challenges. Research Limitations The main limitation of this study is lack of sufficient literature regarding the problems that the United Nations encounters while performing its core function of upholding the principle of collective security. Most of the existing literatures about the United Nations have focused more on the success of the organization rather than failures. Definition of terms For the basis of this study, the definitions of international relations, international system, terrorism, international organizations and collective security will be expressed in the simplest terms: International relations are the processes that define the terms of interaction state and non-state actors relate amongst themselves in the international system. International system refers to a set of relationships among world states, structured according to certain rules and patterns of interaction. Goldstein (2003) illustrates that some of these rules are implicit while others are explicit as they determine who is considered a member of the system, what rights and responsibilities members have and what kind of rights and responsibilities occur among states. Terrorism refers to a form of political violence that targets civilians deliberately and indiscriminately, with the aim of gaining advantage in international bargaining situations. Terrorism usually becomes effective if it succeeds in damaging the morale of a population and also when it gains media exposure for the cause. International organizations are organizations involved in politically relevant activities whose membership and activities occur in more than one country. Collective security is a principle of the UN Charter that advocates for the banding together of the world’s states to stop an aggression against member states. Under the principle of collective security, aggression against one member of the UN is seen as an aggression against all. Chapter 7 of the Charter explicitly authorizes the Security Council to use military force against aggression if the use of non-violent means as captured in chapter 6 fail. Chapter II – Background Literature Review The United Nations was founded at the end of World War II in 1945 to replace the League of Nations. The formation of the UN became apparent after the realization that the League of Nations had failed miserably. Mesler (1997) acknowledges that the failure of the League of Nations was precipitated by the lack of adequate power and authority, instability in the international system and the unwillingness of the US Senate to ratify the treaty that formed the league (p. 11). However, the underlying principles that led to the formation of the United Nations are synonymous with those that governed the formation of the League of Nations. Unlike the League of Nations which lacked the backing of the US Senate, the United Nations received the overwhelming endorsement and backing of both the US Senate and President. As an international governmental organization (IGO), the foundation and significance of the United Nations is best demonstrated by the theory of realism. â€Å"According to the theory of realism, there is no world government, or political authority above the state, thus the international system is essentially anarchical without any overarching political body capable of imposing law and order in the behavior of its members or nation-states†(Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 19). The theory stresses on the centrality of the state, or nation-state, as the supreme political authority in world politics. The theory of realism is based on the assumption that the overriding motive of all states is self-preservation through maximization of power, a situation that transforms the international system to a static state of a war of all against all. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) note that stability is best achieved through balance of power, which results from uninhibited interaction among states, with the most powerful country acting as a balancer (p.19). According to Goldstein (2003) the international relations theory of realism recognizes low politics (economic and social matters) to be secondary to high politics (military and security) (p. 265). It is upon this premise that the United Nations was founded to act as the over-arching political body to impose law and order on the behavior. In essence, the United Nations would enforce peace by treating aggression against one as an aggression against all and collectively defeating the offender. The formation of the United Nations is further favored by the international relations theory of idealism. The theory of idealism is based on Immanuel Kant’s philosophical theory that focuses on the cooperative capacity of human beings rather than their selfishness and lust for power. â€Å"In his book titled Perpetual Peace, Immanuel Kant argued that just as the consensual establishment of government brings order and domestic tranquility to people within states, so does the establishment of a world congress among republican states in bringing perpetual peace to the world generally, thus ending the war for all time† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 39). Kant believed that a pacific union would need to be made up of republican states based on representative governments, for when the people themselves rather than princes could decide whether or not to go to war, they would invariably avoid it, for it is they who must bear all the burdens of warfare. These republican governments would establish a world congress to settle disputes and avoid the potential for violent conflict. â€Å"Kant ultimately laid the philosophical groundwork not only for the contemporary theory of idealism, but also its corresponding institutionalization in the form of international governmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 40). However, the two theories of realism and liberalism are sharply contrasted by the theory of liberalism. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) note that in the international system, liberalism theory recognizes state preferences as opposed to state capabilities, to be the primary determinants of state behavior (p.44). Roberts Kingsbury (1994) point out that unlike the theory of realism where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism advocates for plurality of state actions (p.45). The liberalism theory further states that interaction among states is not limited to high politics (military and security), but stretches further to low politics (economic and social matters). Therefore, this situation eliminates the anarchical situation in the international system as states gain plenty of opportunities for interaction through broader economic and cultural cooperation. Although the realism and liberalism theories project different arguments concerning the founding philosophies of international organizations, both theories acknowledge the need for lasting peace and security in the international system. The spirit of peace and security is what motivated the founding of the United Nations. The organization was founded with the main objective of maintaining international peace and security through peaceful settlement of disputes. The United Nations is further entrusted with the task of promoting economic and social co-operation, in part through consultation with non-governmental organizations as well as the promotion of human rights for populations throughout the world. â€Å"The United Nations Charter is based on the principle that states are equal under international law; states have full sovereignty over their own affairs; that states should have full independence and territorial integrity; and states should carry out their international obligations that include respecting diplomatic privileges, refraining from committing aggression, and observing the terms of the treaties they sign† (Goldstein, 2003, p. 206). The Charter also lays out the structure of the United Nations and the methods by which it operates. According to the United Nations website, the structure of the United Nations consists of the General Assembly, the Security Council, Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Trusteeship Council, Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. The secretariat is headed by the Secretary General and is principally the bureaucratic wing of the United Nations. The Secretary General serves for a maximum of two 5 year terms. The international Court of Justice is headquartered in Hague, Netherlands, and serves as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It consists of fifteen judges elected by the General Assembly and Security Council for nine-year terms and each one of them must be from a different state. While the decisions of the international Court of Justice are formally binding, it possesses no mechanisms of enforcement. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) coordinates the United Nation’s various specialized agencies while the Trusteeship Council was set up to oversee the administration of trusteeships. Weiss Dhows (2007) point out that the General assembly and the Security Council are the most important organs that handle issues that concern the principle of collective security (p.149). The general assembly is the only organ in which every member state is represented, with each state having exactly one vote according to the spirit of sovereign equality. Linda (2003) further reveals that the General Assembly mainly serves as a forum for debates, reviews and setting of agenda (p.33). However, the enforcement of the decisions made by the General Assembly is never guaranteed despite the fact that the resolutions are usually passed by a 2/3 majority. The Security Council consists of five permanent members with veto powers. The five permanent members include the United States Britain, Russia, China and France. The Security Council also consists of 10 other members who are usually proposed by the General Assembly and serve on a 2-year rotation basis. The decisions of the Security Council are binding and enforceable. According to Weiss Dhows (2007), the Security Council deals with collective security and peacekeeping at the request of one or more of the parties in conflict. Moreover, the Security Council has the rights to investigate any dispute or situation that might threaten international peace and security, and to recommend methods of resolution. The Security Council further negotiates ceasefires and disengagements as instruments of conflict resolution. The council is further vested with powers to sanction or authorize the use of military force to contain a conflict. However, the powers of the Security Council are limited in two ways: first, the council’s decisions depends entirely on the interests of member states, thus the ambassadors who represent the states cannot change a council resolution without authorization from their respective governments; and second, member states often try to evade or soften the effects of binding resolutions made by the Security Council. However, Goldstein (2003) warns that Security Council resolution can be enforced only if enough powerful states care about it (p. 272). The Security Council runs a formal mechanism for coordinating multilateral military action in response to aggression, referred to as the Military Staff Committee. The committee is composed of military officers from the permanent council members. The Military Staff Committee was established under chapter 43 of the United Nations charter. However, â€Å"the committee has never been used due to the fact that the United States opposes the procedure of placing its forces under non-US commanders (Goldstein, 2003, p.272). â€Å"According to Goldstein (2006) this is the reason why military forces responding to aggression under the auspices of the Security Council resolutions have always remained under their respective national commands, as was the case during the Gulf War where the U.S. forces undertook the mission of enforcing a UN resolution but did not display UN insignia or flags† (p.273). The Cold war rivalry between the United States and the Soviet is considered to be one of the biggest challenges that ever characterized the United Nations Security Council. The rivalry had split the member states into two blocks, a situation that led to the unnecessary use of veto powers by the United States and the Soviet. According to the Un Committee Report on contributors, the United Nations is funded through contributions from member states. Contributions are assessed according the economic strengths of the member states. The United States has always been the largest contributor to the United Nations. The United States used to contribute 25% of the UN budget until 1997 when maximum contribution was reduced to 20% under the watch of the then Secretary General Kofi Annan. The poorest majority of the General Assembly may pay less than 1% while the ten wealthiest contributors pay 75% of the budget, but cast less 75 of the vote. Major contributors to the regular UN budget for 2006    Member State Contribution% of   total UN budget United States 22.00% Japan 19.47% Germany 8.66% United Kingdom 6.13% France 6.03% Italy 4.89% Canada 2.81% Spain 2.52% China 2.05% Mexico 1.88% Australia 1.59% Brazil 1.52% Source: www.unstats.un.org   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The above statistics are representative sample of financial contributions from UN member countries. All member states make contributions to the UN. Chapter III Methods The proposed study is based on a pre-post design, meaning that performance evaluation was based on events during the Cold War, after the Cold War and the events after the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States. Participants were asked to state their opinions and answer opinions on questions regarding the performance of the United Nations relative to its key duties of ensuring collective security for all member states. The study mainly consisted of a demographic questionnaire consisting of 15 items that were designed to measure the attitudes of the participants concerning the roles of the United Nations in maintaining global peace and security. The study involved a two-dimensional approach of tolerance and stability. Tolerance refers to the degree to which the principle of collective security is accepted as a politically tolerable action; while stability refers to domestic and international legitimacy of the principle of collective security. The demographic questionnaire further consisted of descriptive information of the participants such as age, sex, religion, nationality, gender and race. The study also involved comprehensive research from existing literature that was designed to assess the validity of theories of international relations and international law to the founding principles of the United Nations. Data collection Stratified random samples were drawn from both online college populations and the general public, followed by simple random sampling in each group. The study employed both theoretical and accessible populations in sampling with the aim of reaching wide and varying audiences. The sourced reports obtained from participants provided helpful insights into the different opinions and attitudes that different people of different ages, gender, religion, nationalities and races have towards the United Nations relative to the performance of its international duties. The population sample targeted existing views from participants aged 18 year and above. Data analysis An analysis of variance was used to measure the data. Repeated measurements of data were used to determine and rate different opinions and attitudes from different participants concerning aspects of collective security functions of the United Nations. Limitations Limitations in the context of this study refer to the factors which may have prevented the persons from participating or responding accurately to the questionnaires. The main limitation of this study involved geographical constraints. It was difficult to involve people from all member states of the United Nations given that the UN membership currently stands at more than 200 states. There were also restraints in terms of correct interpretation of the questions as many participants did not have deep knowledge and understanding of international relations. Some participants may have declined to participate completely because the 15 questionnaire items may have been too much for them. Chapter IV Results The results of this study revealed that as much as the United Nations has performed and continues to perform important roles in international relations, the organization did not live up to its billing. Since its inception, the United Nations has been dancing to the whims of the super powers, and the United States in particular. Contrary to expectations, the United Nations did not fundamentally challenge national sovereignty, it did not alter the existing distribution of power among nation-states, and it institutionalized the dominant position of the great powers – specifically the victorious powers in the World War II. According to Goldstein (2003), the United Nations did not gain the monopoly on the legitimate use of force, which was necessary for it to become a world government with authority to impose order through superior use of force (p. 270). The reality of equality among states in the UN is another issue that raises many concerns among member states. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are concerned that as much as the principles of the United Nations recognize the sovereign equality of all member states, and that each member state has one vote in the General assembly is far from the reality because member states are not equal in wealth and power (p.97). Moreover, only five major powers have permanent seats on the Security Council. Critics and admirers alike point out that the United Nations institutionalizes international inequality due to the fact that the Charter is loaded with idealistic principles that bear little resemblance to reality. Chapter V Discussion The credibility of the United Nations has been put to question due to issues surrounding sovereignty of the institution. The extent to which the United Nations can exercise decisive authority to stamp order in the law and order in the international system remains a riddle. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) concur that this is reason why the U.S. flew the U.N. flag in reversing the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950 and the invasion of Iraq in 1990, and both violations were a violation of the international law under the UN charter (p.116). However, to the surprise of many, â€Å"the United Nations never intervened militarily in similar illegal Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Israel invasion of Lebanon in 1982† Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 117). These were clear indications that the United Nations is limited by the demands of power politics in the international system. According to Kochler (2006),the international system is fundamentally anarchical, with the great powers still dominating the international system and the United Nations itself (p.21) Power struggles is one of the biggest challenges facing the United Nations today. Kochler (2002) notes that like states, IGO’s are largely designed by the dominant powers to serve their interests (p. 23) Kochler (2002) further notes that while the existence of the United Nations is intended to maintain world peace and security, it is a world peace and security that perpetuates existing power arrangements and the economic and political systems that support them (p.24). A case in point is the 1989 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. The UN acted when Iraq invaded Kuwait, mainly because the US was able to dominate the Security Council and the invasion threatened to increase world oil prices. This was classic power politics within the guise of a â€Å"new world order† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 123). On the other hand, when the United Nations General Assembly issued a near universal condemnation of the U.S. invasion of Panama, the United States ignored the condemnations and executed the entire invasion with little regard to international concerns. These cases arose as a result of the weakness apparent in the structure of the United Nations. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are concerned that the United Nations gives greater enforcement powers to the Security Council than to other bodies within the organization, yet the Security Council is dominated by the great powers which only pursue interests that are of significance to their nations (p.128). The other concern raised in regard to the performance of the United Nations is the aspect of equality in participation. In essence, cooperation does not necessarily imply the equality of participation or interests. As situations provide, states cooperate in institutions that exploit them because they perceive no alternative, just as the case with the UN, which clearly executes its mandate in favor of the interests of the super powers while neglecting the poor countries. A step by step analysis of the UN during and after the Cold War as well as after the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States reveals some of the most appalling weaknesses in the abilities of the United Nations to enforce lasting peace and security in the international system. The United Nations during the Cold War The period between 1945 and 1955 went down as one of the most difficult periods in the history of the United Nations. â€Å"Marked by a Cold War stalemate that pitied the United States and the Soviet Union against each other, the UN made very little progress during this period due to frequent use of veto powers by the two countries (Mesler, 1997, p.14). One of the biggest challenges that the United Nations faced was that of membership expansion because the US and Soviet exercised their veto powers to prevent the admission of new states perceived to be allied with the other side. Mesler (1997) reveals that between 1945 and 1955, the UN only managed to admit 9 new members (p.16). However, a 1955 bloc deal permitted admission of 16 new members, 8 on each side and the stalemate was avoided thereafter through frequent consultations and bargaining, and caucusing. The United Nations was also characterized by serious funding disputes during the Cold War. â€Å"In 1956, the Soviet Bloc and several Arab States declined to contribute to the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) that was sent to set up a buffer between Israel and Egypt after the second Arab Israel war (Mesler, 1997, p.19). This war came about when Egypt under Nasser sought to nationalize the British controlled Suez Canal, an action the prompted a declaration of war by Britain, France and Israel. Goldstein (2003) acknowledges that during the Cold War, the United Nations had few successes in international security because the U.S. – Soviet conflict prevented consensus (2003, p.269). The United Nations had been relegated to irrelevance in a world order that had been structured by two opposing alliance blocks. Mesler (1997) is concerned that although there were few notable exceptions, such as agreements to station peacekeeping forces in the Middle East, the United Nations did not play a central role in solving international crisis (p.31). The predominance of third world membership added to the UN woos as they necessitated the shift of focus by the UN from security issues to economic and social problems of the poor countries. This was contrary to the international relations theory of realism which identifies low politics (economic and social matters) to be secondary to high politics (military and security). â€Å"Third world states also used the United Nations as a forum for criticizing the rich countries in general, with the United States having been their main target (Goldstein 2003 p. 270). In the 1950’s and 1960’s, the UN membership doubled as colonies in Africa and Asia gained independence. The expansion caused changes in the character of the general Assembly. According to Mesler (1997), â€Å"The concerns of the new members were completely different from those of the western industrialized nations and on many occasions, showed open resentment to their former colonial masters (p.31). Moreover, the third world states became concerned about the overwhelming powers and privileges that the United States enjoyed in the UN. Mesler (1997) further reveals that third world countries were concerned in the manner in which the UN usually became effective in international security affairs when the United States led the efforts. These concerns led to the emergence of rifts between the United States and the third world countries, and consequently, the United States found itself on the minority on many issues. By 1980’s when the pressure from the third world countries became unbearable, the United States reacted by withholding their financial contributions to the United Nations. According to Mesler (1997), the non payment of U.S dues rose to more than $1 billion and was subsequently followed by the withdrawal of membership from the UNESCO (p. 33). However, it must be noted that the UN registered quite some notable success in the late 1980’s just before the end of the Cold war. Mesler (1997) acknowledges that the UN successfully brought to an end several regional conflicts that included the 1988 Iraq – Iran war and the Central American crisis (p.39). The UN successfully engineered ceasefire negotiations among the parties and provided peacekeeping forces that monitored the implementations of the ceasefire agreements. The United Nations after the Cold War The end of the Cold War marked the end of bipolar alignments in the international system and paved way to a multilateral order. This led to more flexible relations among states in the international system and thus great powers could finally agree on different issues regarding the international security. The end of the Cold War further brought to a halt the trend that the third world had deployed in playing off the super powers against each other. According to Mesler (1997), greater cooperation emerged between the United States and the formerly hostile third world countries, a situation that moved the UN to the center stage of international relations (p.38). However, the United Nations still faced challenges that basically related to the drive for power by the country that emerged as the global hegemon from the power struggle of the Cold War, in this case, the United States of America. By the early 1990’s, the United Nations had successfully asserted its position as the world’s most important tool for settling international conflicts. According to an analysis provided by Goldstein (2003) in 1993, Security Council resolutions had increased to 78 from 15 in 1987; peacekeeping missions had risen to 17 from 5 in 1987; peacekeepers had risen to 78,000 from 12,000 in 1987; and countries sending troops had risen to 76 from 26 in 1987 (p. 269). Moreover, the UN oversaw the independence of Namibia from South Africa and the country’s first free elections in 1990. However, the UN faced numerous daunting challenges during the post-Cold War period. Mesler (1997) identifies the problem of inadequate funding that was occasioned by the non-payment of dues by the United States to have been one of the biggest challenges that the United Nations faced during the post Cold War period (p.42). â€Å"The UN woos during the post-Cold War period were further worsened by the failure of the United States to honor its financial obligations to the organization Mesler† (p.42). The United States failed to pay its dues for many years, citing budgetary misappropriation by the UN as their main concern. The US congress demanded the shrinking of UN budgets and cutting down of staff jobs before sanctioning the allocation of funds to the UN. The US congress further delayed confirming the new US ambassador to the UN, Richard Holbrook, leaving the position vacant for a year. These particular free-riding tendencies by the US presented the UN with difficulties in delivering its core functions of collective security and responsibility. Another post Cold War draw back occurred in Angola, where, upon sending just a few peacekeepers to assist in the beefing up of security during the 1992 elections, hell broke loose and rebels took up arms after the government won in the internationally observed elections. The UN was completely overwhelmed and could not contain the rebels. â€Å"In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge faction refused to disarm according to the UN brokered peace plan it had signed, a process that was subsequently overtaken by events after a coup that interrupted Cambodia’s transition to democracy† (Mesler 1997, p. 51). Mesler (1997) identifies Yugoslavia as the other place where the UN faced serious draw backs even after undertaking the largest peacekeeping mission of nearly 40,000 foreign troops costing $1 billion annually from 1993 and 1995 (P. 51). â€Å"The mission was extremely incapacitated by the variance that emerged between the type of forces sent (lightly armed forces equipped for humanitarian operations) and the situation on the ground which was a full scale territorial aggression by heavily armed forces (Mesler, 1997, p.52). This unhappy combination came to be known as â€Å"peacekeeping where there was no peace to keep.† Mesler (1997) notes that in response to the problems of inefficiency and financial difficulties, the UN scaled back its peacekeeping troops from 78,000 in 1995 to 19,000 in 1997, and further carried out staff reduction and reforms in the UN secretariat and UN programs (p. 53). UN during the Post 9/11 The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks upon the United States marked a turning point in the history of the United Nations. The US significantly increased its participation in the United Nations, and a decisive coalition of member states endorsed US war on terrorism. However, there are increased concerns throughout the world that the United States has hijacked the whole process to advance its own national interests at the expense of other states. The United Nations has been pushed to the periphery by the United States in the war on terrorism. The foreign policy measures adopted by the United States after the September 11terrorism attacks are a clear encroachment of the international law. The United States has masterminded the emergence of a new geo-strategic situation in the international system that has effectively reduced the United Nations to a mere rubber stamping authority. As the only hegemony, the United States has taken full advantage of its dominant status usurp the roles of the United Nations. â€Å"The United States claims supreme authority for all measures related to the ongoing anti-terrorism campaigns and does not accept neutral arbiters – such as the UN – in determination of the actual terrorism threats † (Kochler, 2002, p. 4). According to Kochler (2002) the United Nations has indeed been pushed to the sidelines and cannot act anymore according to the Charter’s doctrine of collective security, which since the end of World War II was and still ought to be the core element of multilateral international order represented – or advocated, to be more realistic by the world body (p.9). Kochler (2002) asserts that by arrogating itself the right to act on behalf of the international community, the United States violates the principles that were established under the United Nations Charter which are exclusively reserved for the Security Council and can only be invoked in conformity with the regulations of Chapter 7 of the United Nations Charter (p.11). In its pursuits on the war on terror, the United States with the backing of its western allies attacked Afghanistan in October 2001. However, the attack did not receive the full backing of the United Nations Security Council. Therefore, despite the wide ranging support for the genuine course and concerns of the United States, it is important for operations of such magnitude to undertaken strictly under the full mandate of the United Nations. The other instance during which the United States undermined the authority of the United Nations was the invasion of Iraq in March 2003. Although the Iraq invasion was well intended to rid the world of the dangers posed by weapons of mass destruction and terrorism, once again the United States did not seek the full approval of the UN Security Council. The war in Iraq has ended up being too devastating, claiming lives of thousands of Iraqi citizens and military personnel of the US and its allies. A critical analysis of the Iraq war relative to the rational model of war reveals a big gap between the good achieved and the evil that has been entrenched by the war. It is evident that the Iraq conflict could have been handled effectively by the United Nations through non-violent means as provided for by the chapter 6 of the Charter. The US war on terrorism is run on a platform of preventive war. â€Å"The concept of preventive war as advanced in the new strategic doctrine of the United States is by all means incompatible with the United Nations Charter because the Charter explicitly and unequivocally bans use of force in all forms in the international system except in cases of self-defense or by way of chapter 7 of the UN Charter upon full approval of the Security council† Kochler, 2002, p. 12). Kouchler (2002) further demonstrates his concerns by stating that under the present circumstances, national sovereignty – though guaranteed by the United Nations Charter – has been reduced to a state’s freedom to identify vis-à  -vis the only superpower, with the alternative of either joining the â€Å"forces of evil† or opposing them, without any rights to participate in the determination of what is evil. Therefore, the United States has successfully entrenched its own strategic agendas in different parts of the world under the guise of counter-terrorism war (p. 21). Kouchler identifies the control over specific geopolitical regions and strategic natural resources to be among the key agenda of the US policies that are being implemented under the ongoing war on terror. The US war on terror has evidently taken heavy toll on peace and security in the entire international system. Apart from undermining the principle of collective security as espoused by the United Nations Charter, the counter-terrorism war has been detrimental to the principle of sovereignty and equality of states in the international system. Moreover, individual human rights and fundamental freedoms of citizens throughout the world have been curtailed due to the ever increasing threats of retaliatory attacks from terrorists. Furthermore, citizens of countries under US military invasion have often become victims of indiscriminate use of force. The US war on terror further aggravates internal tensions, ignites ethnic rivalries and deepens existing social problems in independent states that should otherwise enjoy the sovereignty and equal say in the international system. The United Nations has absolutely been dominated and eclipsed by the United States during the post September 11, 2001 period. Chapter VI Conclusion There exists a consensus among many states that the United Nations provides the best global forum for discussing general multilateral issues. States gain leverage by using the UN to seek more beneficial outcomes in conflicts. According to the United Nations website, the UN provides international stability; acts as a representative symbol of global identity; provides a forum where states promote their views and present their disputes; and provides mechanisms for conflict resolutions in international security affairs. No single country in this world can sufficiently perform all these roles to the levels that the United Nations does. In numerous circumstances however, the United Nations has been referred to as a â€Å"toothless dog that only barks but cannot bite† due to its continued inability to enforce law and order in international relations. Linda (2003) asserts that despite these accusations, many of the failures of the United Nations occurred as a result of struggles among external forces rather than the organizations own failure (p.74). Linda (2003) cites the competition between the US and Soviet blocs as having been one of the biggest impediments in the UN during the Cold War (p.74). The United States and the Soviet applied their veto powers to block any decisions that were not in their favor. Moreover, the third world countries maximized on the weaknesses created by the Cold War rivalries to pursue their own selfish interests which were focused on economic and social interests. Therefore, the principle of collective security became secondary to other interests that were being pursued by both the developed and developing countries. Linda (2003) acknowledges that without adequate support from member countries, it became impossible for the United Nations to pursue the agenda of collective security (p.76). While the United Nations performed exceptionally well during the post Cold War era, its operations were severely affected by problems of inadequate funding. The organization was particularly affected by non-payment of dues by the United States. The post September 11 period has seen the United Nations being completely overshadowed by the US in the war against terror. Kochler (2002) warns that â€Å"with the US war on terrorism having claimed so many lives right from its inception to date, there is an urgent need for change of tactic† (p. 31). According to Kochler (2002) the United Nations needs to reclaim its rightful position as the global authority vested with powers to enforce peace and sanity in the international system (.p.32). Therefore, there is an urgent need for powerful countries to give the United Nations its due recognition as the world security and peacekeeping body. Countries such as the United States must learn to pursue their interests within the framework of chapter 7 of the United Nations Charter. Kochler (2002) further warns that the arbitrary attacks on other countries without the approval of the Security Council defeat the purpose and spirit of collective security as a whole (p.33). Such attacks and invasions only serve to divide the world even further along ideological, religious and economic lines. In order to achieve sustainable peace and security throughout the world, it must be acknowledged that â€Å"the United Nations does not exist because it has powers to force its will on the world’s states; rather, it exists because states founded it to serve their needs† (Goldstein, 2006, p. 265). The United Nations should no longer be taken for granted. Although the international relations are still characterized by anarchy, the United Nations is the closest form of world government that the international system has ever cherished. Therefore, efforts must be harnessed to give the United Nations due recognition, greater financial capacity and more political powers to act on behalf of states in fostering world security and international relations. Goldstein contends that the United Nations further acts as a leverage for moderating costs of achieving collective security, because UN dues and expenses of diplomatic representatives in addition to the agreement to behave in accordance with the Charter provide a cost effective avenue compared to the costs that individual countries would incur to achieve the same objectives (p.266). While the United Nations can serve as a forum for international cooperation, much can be achieved only if high coincidences of interests occur so that more agreements can be reached and implemented. Considering the fact that member states retain their full sovereignty status, binding decisions require cooperation and consensus rather than majority votes. Furthermore, there is urgent need for an overhaul of the UN structures so as to eliminate the existing power gaps among member states. This follows concerns to the effect that the United Nations gives greater enforcement powers to the Security Council than to other bodies within the organization, yet the Security Council is dominated by the great powers which only pursue interests that are of significance to their nations. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are categorical that more power should be transferred from the Security Council to the General Assembly where states receive equal recognition and voting rights (p. 134). The Security Council should also be expanded with the objective of distributing power evenly among member states as well within all the organs of the United Nations. Although the main objective that motivated the foundation of the United Nations was the provision of international security through prevention of war, the other services being provided by the organization should never be ignored or pushed to the background. There are many problems which are global in nature that rely on the United Nations. According to Goldstein (2003) globalization has gradually transformed the world into a single economy, thus multinational corporations are relocating from one country to another and building subsidiaries in several other countries† (P.112). Subsequently the world has become more interdependent, with technology having transformed communication to instantaneous levels. All these developments have introduced new challenges and conditions in the international system that no single country can absorb all the pressure presented by such challenges and conditions. These conditions and challenges are presented in the form of population growth, healthcare issues like HIV-AIDS, environmental issues like global warming, drug trafficking and terrorism. Therefore, war should not be the only international dilemma for the United Nations. However, it may be that the United Nations remains too institutionally undeveloped, lacking independent authority and resources, to effectively deal with any of these problems. Reference List Goldstein, J. (2003). International Relations. Pearson Education, Inc., Kochler, H. (2002) International ecumenical conference: The war on terror, its impact on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   sovereignty of states, and its implications for human rights and civil liberties. Linda, F. (2003). An Insider’s Guide to the UN. Yale University Press. Mesler, S. (1997). United Nations: The First Fifty Years. Atlantic Monthly Press. Pilar P. R. (2001). Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy. Washington: Brookings Institution   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Press Roberts, A. Kingsbury, B. (Eds.), (1994). United Nations, Divided World: The UN’s   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Role in International Relations, 2nd Ed The United Nations: Charter of the United Nations. Retrieved from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html/ on 25/03/2008 The United Nations. The United Nations: Organization. Retrieved from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.un.org/aboutun/basicfacts/unorg.htm/ on 25/03/2008 The United Nations. (2006). Report on the committee on contributions. Retrieved from    http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/contributors/N0642856.pdf?OpenDS=A/61/11Lang=E    on 26/05/2008 Weiss G.T. Dhows, S. (Eds.), (2007). The Oxford Handbook on United Nations. Oxford   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   University Press.

Importance of Communication in Daily Life

Importance of Communication in Daily Life To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our communication with others. Anthony Robbins Communication Is Integral To Human Life Communication is deeply intertwined with the human existence. It is an integral part of it. One cannot think of human life without communication. Can you imagine what would happen if you are not allowed to talk for a long time? You would feel suffocated. In personal life, we need to communicate to deal with various concerns and problems of daily life. In professional life also, it is communication that helps us to build healthy relations and credibility with co-workers. Only speaking/talking is not communication. Communication can take place in many forms. Sometimes, we communicate by talking about our ideas, thoughts or emotions; at other times, we may wish to communicate through the written word or even non-verbally. Whatever form we choose, getting the message across is what communication is all about. Communication is a process that is dynamic, continuous, and irreversible but at the same time, it is reciprocal in nature. It is an ongoing process. Roughly, we can define communication as a shared meaning between two or more individuals. The shared meaning arises out of the individuals experiences, background, education and training. Similarity in experiences, background, training, etc. makes communication successful between individuals. Communication helps us to understand others. The inability to communicate can lead to a lot of problems both personally and professionally. Imagine a day without communicating! We can instantly feel the void it would create. Can we ever forget that it is our ability to communicate verbally that distinguishes us from animals? Communication helps form a powerful bond among people and makes us social beings. Besides, knowledge is not the sole requirement for the achievement of success. A person may possess good knowledge, but his/her performance will be evaluated largely on the basis of his/her ability to communicate. Therefore, if you are a good communicator, you have better chances of success in life and in business. 1.2 COMMUNICATION FOR BUSINESS Communication has become indispensable today. Human activity will come to a standstill if there is no communication. All human transactions become possible only through communication. It is the life-blood of every business organization. Especially in todays globalized market economy, effective communication is vital to the success and survival of any organization. Businesses need people with good communication skills because communication is an essential part of the kind of work that is done in business organizations. It extends across all areas of business, including managerial, technical, clerical and social positions. In present times, several factors have contributed to the significance of communication. They are- faster means of communication because of scientific and technological advancements shrinking geographical boundaries because of the availability of faster means of transport growth of the multinational companies that has resulted in the creation of a globalized market economy generation of highly advanced management techniques as a result of the growing importance of professionalism in the management of business the information revolution that has brought with it highly sophisticated networking technologies multiplication of systems of communication at all levels of organization because of specialized knowledge that has lead to departmentalization advancements in the field of social sciences such as in psychology and in sociology that have created an awareness about the human mind and behaviour and how they influence communication Communication undertaken by a business organization with the purpose of achieving certain specific goals is known as business communication. In fact, business communication is a special type of communication undertaken to meet the needs of the organization. Powerful concepts in modern management like participation, motivation, involvement revolve around communication. According to R. Ludlow, Business communication is a process of transfer of information and understanding between different parts and people of a business organization. It consists of various modes and media involved in communication interchanges. Effective communication is needed for growth and development of any organization. H.G. Hicks has rightly pointed out- Communication is basic to an organizations existence from birth of the organization; when communication stops, organized activity ceases to exist. Improving communication skills improves the chances for success of a business. Effective communication brings progress and prosperity to it. Moreover, in this age of specialization, planning, production, sales, advertising, finance, welfare, etc. are handled by different departments. In absence of effective communication, there would be a serious problem of co-ordination among these departments and there would only be chaos and confusion in the organization. Communication is also quite significant keeping in mind the growing importance of human relations and human resource management in todays world. Communication helps a manager in developing meaningful relationships with the subordinates, changing their attitudes, boosting their morale and soliciting their cooperation. Communication links people together to achieve common goals. It is also required to maintain good public relations. Thus, executives are often expected to give speeches and interviews to the media in order to project a favourable image of the organization. Effective communication is required to handle various crises and conflicts of interests in an organization. It is also needed in order to impart adequate training to the employees in handling latest technology. Subordinates often resent the introduction of changes in the methods of working. This poses a challenge to the management to educate the employees so that they can smoothly adapt to the dynamic character of the organization. They also have to work at alleviating the fear that these changes are likely to generate unemployment. Thus, effective communication can help in changing the negative attitude of the employees towards technological advancement. It facilitates meetings which play an important role in the functioning of an organization. Effective business communication depends not only on the skills of the sender of the message but also on the skills of the one who receives that message. Thus, one may say that communication is not an end in itself; rather, it is a means to achieve an end. 1.3 PRE-REQUISITES OF COMMUNICATION Now the question is- What is communication and how it can be accomplished? What do we require to carry out communication? Hence, prior to looking at the meaning of communication, it would be helpful to know how we prepare for it. For instance, you want to write a letter. What all do you need for it? A piece of paper. A pen. A desk for support. Is there anything else that you require besides these things? Certainly you do. You need to dwell on three important things- 1. Purpose 2. Content 3. Skills These three precede all speaking or writing. WHAT TO COMMUNICATE- CONTENT Information Observation/ Receive by Select/Reject Think and Understanding Attention listening or as per your evaluate results into by reading interest, need the information knowledge or expectation This is how information is processed in to being knowledge. Knowledge generates in you the confidence to communicate. If you are well prepared with the content, then half the work is done. It is the urge to express something that begins communication. It can be an idea, an emotion, an opinion or some information. Without this basic idea/need, there can be no communication. However, we do not communicate whatever comes to our mind immediately. There is a need to plan- what to communicate, how to communicate and whom to communicate it to. We do not communicate without a purpose; therefore, it is essential to answer these questions before actually communicating. This helps us to communicate effectively and to get a desirable response from the person with whom we are exchanging our ideas. WHY TO COMMUNICATE- PURPOSE Speakers/ will hear/see Purpose of Writers Listener/ Communication Expectation Reader will listen/read will understand will act/respond THE PURPOSE IS FULFILLED Purpose is the primary pre-requisite of all meaningful communication. The sender initiates communication with some purpose i.e. expectation. S/he expects the receiver to hear/see his message, to listen/read it attentively, to understand it and to act/respond to it. When the receiver gives feedback or performs the expected action, then communication is said to be successful. However, the response would depend on various factors like concentration, physical surroundings and psychological makeup of the receiver. The next question is- how do we communicate? Communication does not just mean speaking or writing. We are communicating even when we smile or shrug our shoulders. However, when we decide to communicate, we need some medium through which to transfer that idea to the other person. HOW TO COMMUNICATE- SKILLS You may possess good knowledge and may be ready to convey it but if you do not know how to do it, it would not be effective. Poor speaking or writing skills is a real hurdle in communication. Speaking Skills Read aloud: Take a small piece of writing from a newspaper, magazine or a book and read it out loud. This will help you to know how you speak- your voice tone, pitch, etc. Observe: Observe how people speak- their pronunciation, accent, intonation, stress, style, rhythm, etc. Try to emulate the speaking style of good speakers. This will help you to improve your own style of speaking. (For a detailed note on speaking skills, writing skills and non-verbal communication, refer Chapter 2 Types of Communication.) Just the idea/information that the communicator has, the media of transmission available and the presence of the receiver are not enough for communication to take place. We need a proper context and an atmosphere where there are no hindrances in the communication process. Does communication end after the idea is communicated? As stated earlier, we communicate with a purpose. Expression of the idea/information is half the work done. But communication is considered complete only when there is some response from the receiver. Only then we can say that the purpose of communication is fulfilled. Communication involves three basic activities on the part of both the participants i.e. the sender and the receiver. On the senders part, they are- Thinking to develop the content to form a message Speaking/Writing to convey the message to the other person Feeling to make the message persuasive On the receivers part, the activities include- Listening/Reading to absorb the idea/information contained in the message Interpreting to understand the meaning of the message Responding to convey the acceptance or the disagreement with the message Communication has always been an important part of human life. Language and the ability to express ourselves using that language come to us spontaneously. And the need to communicate is so inherent in human nature that we hardly realize that effective communication skills can be acquired and honed. There are four basic communication skills- speaking, writing, listening and reading. They always work in the following adjacency pairs- Speaking/writing is handled by the sender of the message and listening/reading by the receiver of the message. Mastering these four skills is very essential if one wants to become an effective communicator. As children, we learn to speak by listening first. Thus, listening is the first skill that we acquire as we develop the language instinct. Then follows the reading skills once we start schooling and lastly we learn the writing skills as a part of our formal education. Thus, learning language/s and the related communication skills follow a systematic process. It does not happen accidentally and instantaneously. Despite of this, people often turn out to be poor communicators as most of us tend to take its importance for granted. Most of the time, we fail to achieve our objective while we communicate. This happens because of our failure to convey our ideas in a precise and clearly understandable manner. There may be a lack either in the content of the message or in the way in which it is conveyed to the intended audience, or both. The point is we do not normally focus much on what to communicate, when to communicate and how to communicate. Also, we need to consider another equally important aspect why to communicate i.e. the purpose. Thus, it is very important for us to recognize and study the essential elements involved in the process of communication in order to become effective communicators. Every aspect of life, whether personal, social or professional, involves communication. The basic meaning of the word communication is- an exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behaviour. The meaning of the word has not undergone much change. However, the ways and means of communication have changed greatly as a result of technological and other socio-cultural developments in recent times. Thus, these advancements have added numerous new dimensions to the communication process, which has become more complex over a period of time. It, thus, calls for a detailed study of the various components that are involved in it in order to be able to communicate effectively. 1.4 DEFINING COMMUNICATION In order to understand the term communication, it would be useful to have a look at some definitions given by the experts. The word communication is derived from the Latin word communis which means to transmit, to impart, to exchange, to share, or to convey. Communication means the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium. (Oxford English Dictionary) Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning. (Business Dictionary) According to Newman and Summer, Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons. Keith Davis states Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. F.G. Meyer defines communication as the intercourse by words, letters or messages, the intercourse of thoughts or opinions. It is the act of making ones ideas and opinions known to others. In the words of Theo Haimann, Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others. According to C.G. Brown, Communication has been defined as the transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence or becomes an exchange or interchange. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver. William Scott defines communication as a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals. Louis A. Allen says, Communication is the sum of all the things which a person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding. According to McFarland, Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is a process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings. These definitions explain communication as a process of passing information and understanding (Keith Davis) a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding (Business Dictionary) the act of making ones ideas and opinions known to others (F.G. Meyer) the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others (Theo Haimann) the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions (William Scott) a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding (Louis A. Allen) a process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings (McFarland) Thus, these definitions adequately highlight and express in concise form the important features of the process of communication. In short, we can define communication as a process in which two or more elements of a system interact in order to achieve a desired outcome or goal. (Larry L. Barker and Deborah A. Gaut, Communication; 2001) 1.5 FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION On the basis of the above discussion, let us now discuss certain important features of the process of communication. 1. It is an exchange of ideas. Communication is the process through which an exchange of information takes place. It is the sharing of information, ideas, concepts and messages. 2. Two parties are involved in it. In communication, the exchange of information takes place between two or more persons. This implies that there are minimum two people involved in the communication process at any given time. The one who initiates the exchange is the sender of the message (speaker/writer) and the one who receives and interprets it is the receiver of the message (listener/reader). 3. It is a two-way process. Communication is a two-way process of exchanging ideas or information. One person alone cannot carry out communication. When you communicate, there has to be a receiver or an audience that would reciprocate. Then only your communication can be complete. Thus, communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non-verbal messages. It is considered effective only when it achieves the desired reaction or response from the receiver. The response may be positive or negative. In case of absence of any response, communication is incomplete. Thus, communication is effective only when a concise and clear message is delivered well, received successfully, understood fully, and responded to promptly. 1.6 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION There is no human action that is done without any purpose. Even the simplest and most natural action like breathing has a purpose- to stay alive. Communication is also always carried out with some purpose. (Refer 1.3 Pre-requisites of Communication) Communication begins with two-fold objectives or purposes that occupy the senders mind: Immediate or Primary to convey or to share Objectives information of Communication Ultimate or Secondary to convince or to persuade people To inform and to persuade are the two basic purposes (goals) that are ever present in the mind of a communicator. Sometimes, he seeks only to inform, as in scientific writings; sometimes, his goal is to persuade the reader, as in journalistic writings; and oftentimes, he wants both to inform and to persuade the reader, as in sales letters, advertisements, etc. Communication is vital to business. The communication activities of an organization fall into three broad categories: 1. Intra-organisational Communication FORMAL Business 2. Inter-organisational Communication Communication 3. Personal INFORMAL Communication 1. Intra-Organisational Communication It is communication within an organization. It is done to implement business plans. It takes many forms like orders, instructions, reports, emails, etc. 2. Inter-Organisational Communication It is communication that a business organization does with people outside the organization i.e. with other companies, customers, clients, general public, etc. It takes the form of planned publicity to improve its image and public relations with the help of business messages, advertising, displays, etc. The success of a business depends on its ability to fulfill the customers needs. Besides providing services, it must communicate effectively with outside people and groups for its success. 3. Personal Communication It is communication without a specific business objective i.e. without an ulterior motive or purpose. Man is a social animal, therefore we have a compulsive need to communicate even when we have nothing substantial to convey. Such communication also occurs in the workplace. For example, personal conversations, gossip, Grapevine phenomenon, etc. If one is not allowed to engage in such casual communication, it may lead to frustration and other such psychological problems. (For a more detailed discussion on corporate communication, refer Chapter 7 Formal and Informal Networks of Communication.) The primary objective of communication is to convey or share information. Business organizations have to deal with a large and varied amount of information on a daily basis in order to conduct various business activities. Thus, proper flow of information helps them to make right decisions. Another equally important objective of communication is to persuade people to accept a point of view or to change their attitude and accept a new or modified attitude. Persuasion is achieved through logical arguments or an emotional appeal to accept the change. Advertisements are an apt example of the persuasive nature of communication. Essentially, all communication is a deliberate and intentional act of persuasion. A communicator wants the reader not only to understand the message but also to be influenced as intended by him. (For a detailed discussion, refer 10.6 Persuasive Communication, Chapter 10 Nature of Attitude and its Influence on Communication) Communication helps to convey information from experts to trainees in an organization for the purpose of educating or training them to handle new technology or to adapt to the changes in the work environment. Communication is an effective tool in the hands of the managers to motivate and to boost the morale of the employees. This enables the organization to achieve higher productivity. Through advice and counseling, the management can help the employees in dealing with their emotional problems as well as problems pertaining to maladjustment and also to give career guidance. By means of letters of appreciation, special mention in reports, minutes of meetings, etc., the management can appreciate the work of the employees. In case of strikes, lockouts, and dismissal of individual employees or disciplinary action against them, the management uses communication channels to issue warnings. Communication also helps in co-ordination of intra-organisational activities, inter-organisational transactions, business transactions, and commercial transactions by means of conferences, meetings, advertisements, requests, suggestions, reviews, and discussions. Without communication, coordinating the activities of different persons engaged in running a business is a remote possibility. The management and the subordinates come closer through communication. Communication promotes cooperation and good industrial relations as it conveys feelings, ideas, opinions, and viewpoints of one party to the other party. The policies and programs formulated by the organization to guide the workforce have to be conveyed to those who are responsible for the execution of work to achieve the organizational objectives. Only effective communication can translate the plans into actions. It aids teamwork by enabling people to work together. It helps perform basic management functions like instructing, coordinating, staffing, planning, etc. Thus, these are the few important objectives of communication in the context of business organizations. So far, we have discussed what comprises communication and the significance of communication in our personal, social as well professional life. We have also highlighted some of the fundamentals of communication. Let us now analyse the process of communication and see how it is accomplished. 1.7 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Process is a series of things done to achieve something. Communication also follows a process. Communication begins when the sender/encoder identifies the need to communicate some idea/concept/information. He then encodes/formulates it into a message using a medium which can be understood by the receiver/decoder of the message who in turn processes it in his mind and responds to it. When the decoder understands the message completely, fidelity of communication is said to be 100% and the communication process is said to be complete. (Refer David Berlos Model of Communication) Thus, communication is a two-way process. Fidelity of Communication Idea Idea Concept Encoder Medium Decoder Concept Message Message Information Information Fidelity of Communication David Berlos Model of Communication If necessary, the receiver may send a reply or may respond or react to the message. This response or reaction is also known as feedback. But sometimes, there may be no response at all from the receiver even if it is required. Absence of feedback can be attributed to either of the following reasons- a) the message does not reach the receiver or b) the receiver fails to understand the message. Such situations may arise due to the presence of some factor/s that can- a) obstruct the message from being transmitted or b) distort the meaning of the message. The factors that hamper the flow of communication are known as barriers to communication. (Refer Chapter 4 Resolving Barriers to Communication) Communication occurs in five phases and it consists of the following eight components which are inter-related: Idea Sender/Encoder (Speaker/Writer) Encoding Message Channel and Medium Receiver/Decoder (Reader/Listener) Decoding Feedback Let us now discuss in detail the various stages and elements involved in the communication process. PHASE I- IDEATING: 1) Idea Every message whether oral or written has its origin in an idea that germinates in the mind of the sender of the message. Every idea refers to some context. Context is a common frame of reference within which the sender and the receiver communicate with each other. Thus, the idea or information that the sender wants to convey to the receiver is the source of the message in the communication process. 2) Sender/Encoder The person who initiates the communication process is referred to as the encoder. The process of communication begins with the sender who identifies the need to communicate. He may want to inform or to persuade or to influence or to make the receiver take a particular course of action. The sender must have a clear picture in his mind about what he wants to communicate and should accordingly select symbols, words, images, etc. that would best convey his ideas to the receiver. He must identify his audience and formulate the message in such a way that the receiver understands fully what he intends to convey and interprets it within the same context. PHASE II- ENCODING: 3) Encoding Encoding takes place when the sender formulates his idea into a message to be transmitted to the receiver, using a series of symbols- verbal and/or non-verbal, written or oral. The sender should encode his message keeping in mind the purpose of communication and he should select words or symbols so as to make the receiver understand the communication correctly and to achieve the expected feedback. The sender as well as the receiver should attach the same meaning to the symbols or words, otherwise communication would fail. Thus, proper encoding is essential for successful communication. 4) Message That which is encoded, i.e. the idea/concept/information, is the message. Message is an idea transformed into words. It can be expressed in different ways depending on the subject-matter, purpose, audience, personal style and cultural background of the sender. It can be transmitted effectively only when it is well-formulated, clear, and complete in itself. PHASE III- TRANSMITTING: 5) Channel and Medium An appropriate medium chosen to send the message is known as channel. It is the vehicle which facilitates the sender to convey the message to the receiver. Channel is the system used to transmit a message, whereas medium is one of the forms or types used under that system. For example, oral communication is a channel and telephone conversation (a form of oral communication) is a medium. There are three broad channels of communication and there are several media under each- Channel Medium 1. Oral face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation, audio-tapes, voice mail, etc. 2. Written letters, memos, reports, manuals, notices, circulars, questionnaires, minutes, email, fax, etc. 3. Audio-visual cinema, television, video-tapes, video conferences, video chat, etc. Thus, there is a difference between medium and channel. The sender should decide the best possible channel and medium to transmit the message. The selection of an appropriate channel/medium would be influenced by the following factors- a) the nature of the message, b) the urgency of the message, c) the number of receivers, d) the cost factor, and e) the relationship between the sender and the receiver. PHASE IV- RECEIVING: 6) Receiver/Decoder The person who receives the encoded message is referred to as the decoder. He is the intended audience of the message. The receiver may be an individual or a group of individuals. As communication is a two-way process, the receiver is as important as the sender of the message. Communication will not be complete in the following situations- a) in the absence of the receiver, b) if the message does not reach the right/intended receiver, and c) if the receiver does not understand the message. A receiver may be a listener or a reader or a viewer of the message. He not only receives the message but also tries to understand, interpret, and perceive the total meaning of the message, as was intended by the sender, and gives necessary feedback. 7) Decoding It is a process by which the receiver interprets the message and translates it into meaningful information. The meaning of the message is the sum total of the meanings of the words (symbols) together with the tone and the attitude of the sender as reflected by his choice of w